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Colon Cancer Treatment (PDQ®): Treatment - Health Professional Information [NCI]

This information is produced and provided by the National Cancer Institute (NCI). The information in this topic may have changed since it was written. For the most current information, contact the National Cancer Institute via the Internet web site at http://cancer.gov or call 1-800-4-CANCER.

Colon Cancer Treatment

General Information About Colon Cancer Back to top

Cancer of the colon is a highly treatable and often curable disease when localized to the bowel. Surgery is the primary form of treatment and results in cure in approximately 50% of the patients. Recurrence following surgery is a major problem and is often the ultimate cause of death.

Incidence and Mortality

Note: Estimated new cases and deaths from colon cancer in the United States in 2012:[1]

  • New cases: 103,170 (colon cancer only).
  • Deaths: 51,690 (colon and rectal cancers combined).

Gastrointestinal stromal tumors can occur in the colon. (Refer to the PDQ summary on Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumors Treatment for more information.)

Anatomy


Gastrointestinal (digestive) system anatomy; shows esophagus, liver, stomach, colon, small intestine, rectum, and anus.
Anatomy of the lower gastrointestinal system.

Risk Factors

Groups that have a high incidence of colorectal cancer include those with hereditary conditions. Together, these groups account for 10% to 15% of colorectal cancers. These groups include the following:

  • Familial polyposis.
  • Hereditary nonpolyposis colon cancer (HNPCC) or Lynch syndrome variants I and II.
  • A personal history of ulcerative colitis or Crohn colitis.[2,3]

More common conditions with an increased risk include the following:

  • A personal history of colorectal cancer or adenomas.
  • First-degree family history of colorectal cancer or adenomas.
  • A personal history of ovarian, endometrial, or breast cancer.[4,5]

These high-risk groups account for only 23% of all colorectal cancers. Limiting screening or early cancer detection to only these high-risk groups would miss the majority of colorectal cancers.[6] (Refer to the PDQ summaries on Colorectal Cancer Screening and Colorectal Cancer Prevention for more information.)

Screening

Because of the frequency of the disease, ability to identify high-risk groups, slow growth of primary lesions, better survival of patients with early-stage lesions, and relative simplicity and accuracy of screening tests, screening for colon cancer should be a part of routine care for all adults aged 50 years and older, especially for those with first-degree relatives with colorectal cancer. (Refer to the PDQ summary on Colorectal Cancer Screening for more information.)

Prognostic Factors

The prognosis of patients with colon cancer is clearly related to the following:

  • The degree of penetration of the tumor through the bowel wall.
  • The presence or absence of nodal involvement.
  • The presence or absence of distant metastases.

These three characteristics form the basis for all staging systems developed for this disease.

Other prognostic factors include the following:

  • Bowel obstruction and bowel perforation are indicators of poor prognosis.[7]
  • Elevated pretreatment serum levels of carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) have a negative prognostic significance.[8]

Many other prognostic markers have been evaluated retrospectively for patients with colon cancer, though most, including allelic loss of chromosome 18q or thymidylate synthase expression, have not been prospectively validated.[9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18] Microsatellite instability, also associated with HNPCC, has been associated with improved survival independent of tumor stage in a population-based series of 607 patients younger than 50 years with colorectal cancer.[19] Patients with HNPCC reportedly have better prognoses in stage-stratified survival analysis than patients with sporadic colorectal cancer, but the retrospective nature of the studies and possibility of selection factors make this observation difficult to interpret.[20]

Treatment decisions depend on factors such as physician and patient preferences and the stage of the disease, rather than the age of the patient.[21,22,23]

Racial differences in overall survival after adjuvant therapy have been observed, without differences in disease-free survival, suggesting that comorbid conditions play a role in survival outcome in different patient populations.[24]

Follow-up

Following treatment of colon cancer, periodic evaluations may lead to the earlier identification and management of recurrent disease.[25,26,27,28] The impact of such monitoring on overall mortality of patients with recurrent colon cancer, however, is limited by the relatively small proportion of patients in whom localized, potentially curable metastases are found. To date, no large-scale randomized trials have documented the efficacy of a standard, postoperative monitoring program.[29,30,31,32,33]

CEA is a serum glycoprotein frequently used in the management of patients with colon cancer. A review of the use of this tumor marker suggests the following:[34]

  • A CEA level is not a valuable screening test for colorectal cancer because of the large numbers of false-positive and false-negative reports.
  • Postoperative CEA testing should be restricted to patients who would be candidates for resection of liver or lung metastases.
  • Routine use of CEA levels alone for monitoring response to treatment should not be recommended.

The optimal regimen and frequency of follow-up examinations are not well defined because the impact on patient survival is not clear and the quality of data is poor.[31,32,33] New surveillance methods, including CEA immunoscintigraphy [35] and positron emission tomography,[36] are under clinical evaluation.

Related Summaries

Other PDQ summaries containing information related to colon cancer include the following:

  • Colorectal Cancer Prevention
  • Colorectal Cancer Screening
  • Genetics of Colorectal Cancer
  • Unusual Cancers of Childhood Treatment (childhood cancer of the colon)

References:

1. American Cancer Society.: Cancer Facts and Figures 2012. Atlanta, Ga: American Cancer Society, 2012. Available online. Last accessed January 4, 2013.
2. Thorson AG, Knezetic JA, Lynch HT: A century of progress in hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (Lynch syndrome). Dis Colon Rectum 42 (1): 1-9, 1999.
3. Smith RA, von Eschenbach AC, Wender R, et al.: American Cancer Society guidelines for the early detection of cancer: update of early detection guidelines for prostate, colorectal, and endometrial cancers. Also: update 2001--testing for early lung cancer detection. CA Cancer J Clin 51 (1): 38-75; quiz 77-80, 2001 Jan-Feb.
4. Ransohoff DF, Lang CA: Screening for colorectal cancer. N Engl J Med 325 (1): 37-41, 1991.
5. Fuchs CS, Giovannucci EL, Colditz GA, et al.: A prospective study of family history and the risk of colorectal cancer. N Engl J Med 331 (25): 1669-74, 1994.
6. Winawer SJ: Screening for colorectal cancer. Cancer: Principles and Practice of Oncology Updates 2(1): 1-16, 1987.
7. Steinberg SM, Barkin JS, Kaplan RS, et al.: Prognostic indicators of colon tumors. The Gastrointestinal Tumor Study Group experience. Cancer 57 (9): 1866-70, 1986.
8. Filella X, Molina R, Grau JJ, et al.: Prognostic value of CA 19.9 levels in colorectal cancer. Ann Surg 216 (1): 55-9, 1992.
9. McLeod HL, Murray GI: Tumour markers of prognosis in colorectal cancer. Br J Cancer 79 (2): 191-203, 1999.
10. Jen J, Kim H, Piantadosi S, et al.: Allelic loss of chromosome 18q and prognosis in colorectal cancer. N Engl J Med 331 (4): 213-21, 1994.
11. Lanza G, Matteuzzi M, Gafá R, et al.: Chromosome 18q allelic loss and prognosis in stage II and III colon cancer. Int J Cancer 79 (4): 390-5, 1998.
12. Griffin MR, Bergstralh EJ, Coffey RJ, et al.: Predictors of survival after curative resection of carcinoma of the colon and rectum. Cancer 60 (9): 2318-24, 1987.
13. Johnston PG, Fisher ER, Rockette HE, et al.: The role of thymidylate synthase expression in prognosis and outcome of adjuvant chemotherapy in patients with rectal cancer. J Clin Oncol 12 (12): 2640-7, 1994.
14. Shibata D, Reale MA, Lavin P, et al.: The DCC protein and prognosis in colorectal cancer. N Engl J Med 335 (23): 1727-32, 1996.
15. Bauer KD, Lincoln ST, Vera-Roman JM, et al.: Prognostic implications of proliferative activity and DNA aneuploidy in colonic adenocarcinomas. Lab Invest 57 (3): 329-35, 1987.
16. Bauer KD, Bagwell CB, Giaretti W, et al.: Consensus review of the clinical utility of DNA flow cytometry in colorectal cancer. Cytometry 14 (5): 486-91, 1993.
17. Sun XF, Carstensen JM, Zhang H, et al.: Prognostic significance of cytoplasmic p53 oncoprotein in colorectal adenocarcinoma. Lancet 340 (8832): 1369-73, 1992.
18. Roth JA: p53 prognostication: paradigm or paradox? Clin Cancer Res 5 (11): 3345, 1999.
19. Gryfe R, Kim H, Hsieh ET, et al.: Tumor microsatellite instability and clinical outcome in young patients with colorectal cancer. N Engl J Med 342 (2): 69-77, 2000.
20. Watson P, Lin KM, Rodriguez-Bigas MA, et al.: Colorectal carcinoma survival among hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal carcinoma family members. Cancer 83 (2): 259-66, 1998.
21. Iwashyna TJ, Lamont EB: Effectiveness of adjuvant fluorouracil in clinical practice: a population-based cohort study of elderly patients with stage III colon cancer. J Clin Oncol 20 (19): 3992-8, 2002.
22. Chiara S, Nobile MT, Vincenti M, et al.: Advanced colorectal cancer in the elderly: results of consecutive trials with 5-fluorouracil-based chemotherapy. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol 42 (4): 336-40, 1998.
23. Popescu RA, Norman A, Ross PJ, et al.: Adjuvant or palliative chemotherapy for colorectal cancer in patients 70 years or older. J Clin Oncol 17 (8): 2412-8, 1999.
24. Dignam JJ, Colangelo L, Tian W, et al.: Outcomes among African-Americans and Caucasians in colon cancer adjuvant therapy trials: findings from the National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project. J Natl Cancer Inst 91 (22): 1933-40, 1999.
25. Martin EW Jr, Minton JP, Carey LC: CEA-directed second-look surgery in the asymptomatic patient after primary resection of colorectal carcinoma. Ann Surg 202 (3): 310-7, 1985.
26. Bruinvels DJ, Stiggelbout AM, Kievit J, et al.: Follow-up of patients with colorectal cancer. A meta-analysis. Ann Surg 219 (2): 174-82, 1994.
27. Lautenbach E, Forde KA, Neugut AI: Benefits of colonoscopic surveillance after curative resection of colorectal cancer. Ann Surg 220 (2): 206-11, 1994.
28. Khoury DA, Opelka FG, Beck DE, et al.: Colon surveillance after colorectal cancer surgery. Dis Colon Rectum 39 (3): 252-6, 1996.
29. Safi F, Link KH, Beger HG: Is follow-up of colorectal cancer patients worthwhile? Dis Colon Rectum 36 (7): 636-43; discussion 643-4, 1993.
30. Moertel CG, Fleming TR, Macdonald JS, et al.: An evaluation of the carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) test for monitoring patients with resected colon cancer. JAMA 270 (8): 943-7, 1993.
31. Rosen M, Chan L, Beart RW Jr, et al.: Follow-up of colorectal cancer: a meta-analysis. Dis Colon Rectum 41 (9): 1116-26, 1998.
32. Desch CE, Benson AB 3rd, Smith TJ, et al.: Recommended colorectal cancer surveillance guidelines by the American Society of Clinical Oncology. J Clin Oncol 17 (4): 1312, 1999.
33. Benson AB 3rd, Desch CE, Flynn PJ, et al.: 2000 update of American Society of Clinical Oncology colorectal cancer surveillance guidelines. J Clin Oncol 18 (20): 3586-8, 2000.
34. Clinical practice guidelines for the use of tumor markers in breast and colorectal cancer. Adopted on May 17, 1996 by the American Society of Clinical Oncology. J Clin Oncol 14 (10): 2843-77, 1996.
35. Lechner P, Lind P, Goldenberg DM: Can postoperative surveillance with serial CEA immunoscintigraphy detect resectable rectal cancer recurrence and potentially improve tumor-free survival? J Am Coll Surg 191 (5): 511-8, 2000.
36. Lonneux M, Reffad AM, Detry R, et al.: FDG-PET improves the staging and selection of patients with recurrent colorectal cancer. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 29 (7): 915-21, 2002.

Cellular Classification of Colon Cancer Back to top

Histologic types of colon cancer include the following:

  • Adenocarcinoma (most colon cancers).
    • Mucinous (colloid) adenocarcinoma.
    • Signet ring adenocarcinoma.
  • Scirrhous tumors.
  • Neuroendocrine.[1] Tumors with neuroendocrine differentiation typically have a poorer prognosis than pure adenocarcinoma variants.

References:

1. Saclarides TJ, Szeluga D, Staren ED: Neuroendocrine cancers of the colon and rectum. Results of a ten-year experience. Dis Colon Rectum 37 (7): 635-42, 1994.

Stage Information for Colon Cancer Back to top

Treatment decisions should be made with reference to the TNM classification [1] rather than to the older Dukes or the Modified Astler-Coller classification schema.

The American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) and a National Cancer Institute–sponsored panel recommended that at least 12 lymph nodes be examined in patients with colon and rectal cancer to confirm the absence of nodal involvement by tumor.[2,3,4] This recommendation takes into consideration that the number of lymph nodes examined is a reflection of the aggressiveness of lymphovascular mesenteric dissection at the time of surgical resection and the pathologic identification of nodes in the specimen. Retrospective studies demonstrated that the number of lymph nodes examined in colon and rectal surgery may be associated with patient outcome.[5,6,7,8]

AJCC Stage Groupings and TNM Definitions

The AJCC has designated staging by TNM classification to define colon cancer.[1] The same classification is used for both clinical and pathologic staging.[1]

Table 1. Definitions of TNM Stage 0

Stage TNMa,b Dukesc MACd Description Illustration
T = primary tumor; N = regional lymph nodes; M = distant metastasis.
Reprinted with permission from AJCC: Colon and rectum. In: Edge SB, Byrd DR, Compton CC, et al., eds.: AJCC Cancer Staging Manual. 7th ed. New York, NY: Springer, 2010, pp 143-164.
The explanations for superscripts a–g are at the end ofTable 5.
0
Tis, N0, M0
–
–
Tis = Carcinomain situ: intraepithelial or invasion of lamina propria.e

Stage 0 colon/rectal carcinoma in situ; shows a cross-section of the colon/rectum. An inset shows the layers of the colon/rectum wall with abnormal cells in the mucosa layer. Also shown are the submucosa, muscle layers, serosa, a blood vessel, and lymph nodes.
N0 = No regional lymph node metastasis.
M0 = No distant metastasis.

Table 2. Definitions of TNM Stage I

Stage TNMa,b Dukesc MACd Description Illustration
T = primary tumor; N = regional lymph nodes; M = distant metastasis.
Reprinted with permission from AJCC: Colon and rectum. In: Edge SB, Byrd DR, Compton CC, et al., eds.: AJCC Cancer Staging Manual. 7th ed. New York, NY: Springer, 2010, pp 143-164.
The explanations for superscripts a–g are at the end ofTable 5.
I
T1, N0, M0
A
A
T1 = Tumor invades submucosa.

Stage I colorectal cancer; shows a cross-section of the colon/rectum. An inset shows the layers of the colon/rectum wall with cancer in the mucosa, submucosa, and muscle layers. Also shown are the serosa, a blood vessel, and lymph nodes.
T2 = Tumor invades muscularis propria.
N0 = No regional lymph node metastasis.
T2, N0, M0 A B1 M0 = No distant metastasis.

Table 3. Definitions of TNM Stage II

Stage TNMa,b Dukesc MACd Description Illustration
T = primary tumor; N = regional lymph nodes; M = distant metastasis.
Reprinted with permission from AJCC: Colon and rectum. In: Edge SB, Byrd DR, Compton CC, et al., eds.: AJCC Cancer Staging Manual. 7th ed. New York, NY: Springer, 2010, pp 143-164.
The explanations for superscripts a–g are at the end ofTable 5.
IIA
T3, N0, M0
B
B2
T3 = Tumor invades through the muscularis propria into pericolorectal tissues.

Stage II colorectal cancer; shows a cross-section of the colon/rectum and a three-panel inset. Each panel shows the layers of the colon/rectum wall: mucosa, submucosa, muscle layers, and serosa. Also shown are a blood vessel and lymph nodes. First panel shows stage IIA with cancer in the mucosa, submucosa, muscle layers, and serosa. Second panel shows stage IIB with cancer in all layers and spreading through the serosa. Third panel shows stage IIC with cancer spreading to nearby organs.
N0 = No regional lymph node metastasis.
M0 = No distant metastasis.
IIB T4a, N0, M0 B B2 T4a = Tumor penetrates to the surface of the visceral peritoneum.f
N0 = No regional lymph node metastasis.
M0 = No distant metastasis.
IIC T4b, N0, M0 B B3 T4b = Tumor directly invades or is adherent to other organs or structures.f,g
N0 = No regional lymph node metastasis.
M0 = No distant metastasis.

Table 4. Definitions of TNM Stage III

Stage TNMa,b Dukesc MACd Description Illustration
T = primary tumor; N = regional lymph nodes; M = distant metastasis.
Reprinted with permission from AJCC: Colon and rectum. In: Edge SB, Byrd DR, Compton CC, et al., eds.: AJCC Cancer Staging Manual. 7th ed. New York, NY: Springer, 2010, pp 143-164.
The explanations for superscripts a–g are at the end ofTable 5.
IIIA
T1–T2, N1/N1c, M0
C
C1
T1 = Tumor invades submucosa.

Stage IIIA colorectal cancer; shows a cross-section of the colon/rectum and a two-panel inset. Each panel shows the layers of the colon/rectum wall: mucosa, submucosa, muscle layers, and serosa. Also shown are a blood vessel and lymph nodes. First panel shows cancer in the mucosa, submucosa, muscle layers, and 2 lymph nodes. Second panel shows cancer in the mucosa, submucosa, and 5 lymph nodes.
T2 = Tumor invades muscularis propria.
N1 = Metastases in 1–3 regional lymph nodes.
T1, N2a, M0 C C1 N1c = Tumor deposit(s) in the subserosa, mesentery, or nonperitonealized pericolic or perirectal tissues without regional nodal metastasis.
N2a = Metastases in 4–6 regional lymph nodes.
M0 = No distant metastasis.
IIIB
T3–T4a, N1/N1c, M0
C
C2
T1 = Tumor invades submucosa.

Stage IIIB colorectal cancer; shows a cross-section of the colon/rectum and a two-panel inset. Each panel shows the layers of the colon/rectum wall: mucosa, submucosa, muscle layers, and serosa. Also shown are a blood vessel and lymph nodes. First panel shows cancer in all layers, spreading through the serosa, and in 3 lymph nodes. Second panel shows cancer in all layers and in 5 lymph nodes. Third panel shows cancer in the mucosa, submucosa, muscle layers, and 7 lymph nodes.
T2 = Tumor invades muscularis propria.
T3 = Tumor invades through the muscularis propria into pericolorectal tissues.
T4a = Tumor penetrates to the surface of the visceral peritoneum.f
N1 = Metastases in 1–3 regional lymph nodes.
N1c = Tumor deposit(s) in the subserosa, mesentery, or nonperitonealized pericolic or perirectal tissues without regional nodal metastasis.
T2–T3, N2a, M0 C C1/C2 N2a = Metastases in 4–6 regional lymph nodes.
N2b = Metastases in ≥7 regional lymph nodes.
T1–T2, N2b, M0 C C1 M0 = No distant metastasis.
IIIC
T4a, N2a, M0
C
C2
T3 = Tumor invades through the muscularis propria into pericolorectal tissues.

Stage IIIC colorectal cancer; shows a cross-section of the colon/rectum wall and a three-panel inset. Each panel shows the layers of the colon/rectum wall: mucosa, submucosa, muscle layers, and serosa. Also shown are a blood vessel and lymph nodes. First panel shows cancer in all layers, spreading through the serosa, and in 4 lymph nodes. Second panel shows cancer in all layers and in 7 lymph nodes. Third panel shows cancer in all layers, spreading through the serosa, in 2 lymph nodes, and spreading to nearby organs.
T4a = Tumor penetrates to the surface of the visceral peritoneum.f
T4b = Tumor directly invades or is adherent to other organs or structures.f,g
T3–T4a, N2b, M0 C C2 N1 = Metastases in 1–3 regional lymph nodes.
N2 = Metastases in ≥4 regional lymph nodes.
N2a = Metastases in 4–6 regional lymph nodes.
T4b, N1–N2, M0 C C3 N2b = Metastases in ≥7 regional lymph nodes.
M0 = No distant metastasis.

Table 5. Definitions of TNM Stage IV

Stage TNMa,b Dukesc MACd Description Illustration
T = primary tumor; N = regional lymph nodes; M = distant metastasis.
Reprinted with permission from AJCC: Colon and rectum. In: Edge SB, Byrd DR, Compton CC, et al., eds.: AJCC Cancer Staging Manual. 7th ed. New York, NY: Springer, 2010, pp 143-164.
a cTNM is the clinical classification, and pTNM is the pathologic classification. The y prefix is used for those cancers that are classified after neoadjuvant pretreatment (e.g., ypTNM). Patients who have a complete pathologic response (ypT0, N0, cM0) may be similar to stage group 0 or I. The r prefix is to be used for those cancers that have recurred after a disease-free interval (rTNM).
b A satellite peritumoral nodule in the pericolorectal adipose tissue of a primary carcinoma without histologic evidence of residual lymph node in the nodule may represent discontinuous spread, venous invasion with extravascular spread (V1/2), or a totally replaced lymph node (N1/2). Replaced nodes should be counted separately as positive nodes in the N category, whereas discontinuous spread or venous invasion should be classified and counted in the site-specific factor category Tumor Deposits.
c Dukes B is a composite of better (T3, N0, M0) and worse (T4, N0, M0) prognostic groups, as is Dukes C (any T, N1, M0 and any T, N2, M0).
d MAC is the modified Astler-Coller classification.
e Tis includes cancer cells confined within the glandular basement membrane (intraepithelial) or mucosal lamina propria (intramucosal) with no extension through the muscularis mucosae into the submucosa.
f Direct invasion in T4 includes invasion of other organs or other segments of the colorectum as a result of direct extension through the serosa, as confirmed on microscopic examination (e.g., invasion of the sigmoid colon by a carcinoma of the cecum) or, for cancers in a retroperitoneal or subperitoneal location, direct invasion of other organs or structures by virtue of extension beyond the muscularis propria (i.e., respectively, a tumor on the posterior wall of the descending colon invading the left kidney or lateral abdominal wall; or a mid or distal rectal cancer with invasion of prostate, seminal vesicles, cervix, or vagina).
g Tumor that is adherent to other organs or structures, grossly, is classified cT4b. However, if no tumor is present in the adhesion, microscopically, the classification should be pT1–4a depending on the anatomical depth of wall invasion. The V and L classifications should be used to identify the presence or absence of vascular or lymphatic invasion whereas the PN site-specific factor should be used for perineural invasion.
IVA
Any T, Any N, M1a
–
–
TX = Primary tumor cannot be assessed.

Stage IV colon cancer; shows other parts of the body where colon cancer may spread, including lymph nodes, lung, liver, abdominal wall, and ovary. Inset shows cancer spreading through the blood and lymph nodes to other parts of the body.
T0 = No evidence of primary tumor.
Tis = Carcinomain situ: intraepithelial or invasion of lamina propria.e
T1 = Tumor invades submucosa.
T2 = Tumor invades muscularis propria.
T3 = Tumor invades through the muscularis propria into pericolorectal tissues.
T4a = Tumor penetrates to the surface of the visceral peritoneum.f
T4b = Tumor directly invades or is adherent to other organs or structures.f,g
NX = Regional lymph nodes cannot be assessed.
N0 = No regional lymph node metastasis.
N1 = Metastases in 1–3 regional lymph nodes.
N1a = Metastasis in 1 regional lymph node.
N1b = Metastases in 2–3 regional lymph nodes.
N1c = Tumor deposit(s) in the subserosa, mesentery, or nonperitonealized pericolic or perirectal tissues without regional nodal metastasis.
N2 = Metastases in ≥4 regional lymph nodes.
N2a = Metastases in 4–6 regional lymph nodes.
N2b = Metastases in ≥7 regional lymph nodes.
M1a = Metastasis confined to 1 organ or site (e.g., liver, lung, ovary, nonregional node).
IVB Any T, Any N, M1b – – TX = Primary tumor cannot be assessed.
T0 = No evidence of primary tumor.
Tis = Carcinomain situ: intraepithelial or invasion of lamina propria.e
T1 = Tumor invades submucosa.
T2 = Tumor invades muscularis propria.
T3 = Tumor invades through the muscularis propria into pericolorectal tissues.
T4a = Tumor penetrates to the surface of the visceral peritoneum.f
T4b = Tumor directly invades or is adherent to other organs or structures.f,g
NX = Regional lymph nodes cannot be assessed.
N0 = No regional lymph node metastasis.
N1 = Metastases in 1–3 regional lymph nodes.
N1a = Metastasis in 1 regional lymph node.
N1b = Metastases in 2–3 regional lymph nodes.
N1c = Tumor deposit(s) in the subserosa, mesentery, or nonperitonealized pericolic or perirectal tissues without regional nodal metastasis.
N2 = Metastases in ≥4 regional lymph nodes.
N2a = Metastases in 4–6 regional lymph nodes.
N2b = Metastases in ≥7 regional lymph nodes.
M1b = Metastases in >1 organ/site or the peritoneum.

References:

1. Colon and rectum. In: Edge SB, Byrd DR, Compton CC, et al., eds.: AJCC Cancer Staging Manual. 7th ed. New York, NY: Springer, 2010, pp 143-64.
2. Colon and rectum. In: American Joint Committee on Cancer.: AJCC Cancer Staging Manual. 6th ed. New York, NY: Springer, 2002, pp 113-124.
3. Compton CC, Greene FL: The staging of colorectal cancer: 2004 and beyond. CA Cancer J Clin 54 (6): 295-308, 2004 Nov-Dec.
4. Nelson H, Petrelli N, Carlin A, et al.: Guidelines 2000 for colon and rectal cancer surgery. J Natl Cancer Inst 93 (8): 583-96, 2001.
5. Swanson RS, Compton CC, Stewart AK, et al.: The prognosis of T3N0 colon cancer is dependent on the number of lymph nodes examined. Ann Surg Oncol 10 (1): 65-71, 2003 Jan-Feb.
6. Le Voyer TE, Sigurdson ER, Hanlon AL, et al.: Colon cancer survival is associated with increasing number of lymph nodes analyzed: a secondary survey of intergroup trial INT-0089. J Clin Oncol 21 (15): 2912-9, 2003.
7. Prandi M, Lionetto R, Bini A, et al.: Prognostic evaluation of stage B colon cancer patients is improved by an adequate lymphadenectomy: results of a secondary analysis of a large scale adjuvant trial. Ann Surg 235 (4): 458-63, 2002.
8. Tepper JE, O'Connell MJ, Niedzwiecki D, et al.: Impact of number of nodes retrieved on outcome in patients with rectal cancer. J Clin Oncol 19 (1): 157-63, 2001.

Treatment Option Overview for Colon Cancer Back to top

Table 6. Standard Treatment Options for Stages 0–III Colon Cancer

Stage (TNM Staging Criteria) Standard Treatment Options
Stage 0 Colon Cancer Surgery
Stage I Colon Cancer Surgery
Stage II Colon Cancer Surgery
Stage III Colon Cancer Surgery
Adjuvant chemotherapy

Table 7. Treatment Options for Stage IV and Recurrent Colon Cancer

Stage (TNM Staging Criteria) Treatment Options
Treatment of Liver Metastasis Surgery
Neoadjuvant chemotherapy
Local ablation
Adjuvant chemotherapy
Intra-arterial chemotherapy
Treatment of Stage IV and Recurrent Colon Cancer Surgery
Chemotherapy and targeted therapy
Second-line chemotherapy

Primary Surgical Therapy

Standard treatment for patients with colon cancer has been open surgical resection of the primary and regional lymph nodes for localized disease.

The role of laparoscopic techniques [1,2,3,4] in the treatment of colon cancer has been examined in two studies.

Evidence (laparoscopic techniques):

1. A multicenter, prospective, randomized, noninferiority trial (NCCTG-934653) compared laparoscopic-assisted colectomy (LAC) with open colectomy in 872 patients.
  • At a median follow-up of 4.4 years, 3-year recurrence rates (16% LAC vs. 18% open colectomy; hazard ratio [HR] for recurrence, 0.86; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.63–1.17; P = .32) and 3-year overall survival (OS) rates (86% LAC vs. 85% open colectomy; HR for death in LAC, 0.91; 95% CI, 0.68–1.21; P = .51) were similar in both groups for all stages of disease evaluated. Tumor recurrence in surgical incisions was less than 1% for both groups.[5][Level of evidence: 1iiA]
  • Decreased hospital stay (5 days LAC vs. 6 days open colectomy, P < .001) and decreased use of analgesics were reported in the LAC group. A 21% conversion rate from LAC to open procedure was shown.
  • This study excluded patients with locally advanced disease, transverse colon and rectal tumor locations, and perforated lesions. Each of the 66 surgeons participating in the trial had performed at least 20 LACs and were accredited for study participation after independent videotape review assured appropriate oncologic and surgical principles were maintained.[5] The quality-of-life component of this trial was published separately and minimal short-term quality-of-life benefits with LAC were reported.[6][Level of evidence: 1iiC]
2. One small, single-institution randomized study of 219 patients showed that the LAC procedure was independently associated with reduced tumor recurrence on multivariate analysis.[7][Level of evidence: 1iiB]

Surgery is curative in 25% to 40% of highly selected patients who develop resectable metastases in the liver and lung. Improved surgical techniques and advances in preoperative imaging have allowed for better patient selection for resection.

Adjuvant Chemotherapy

The potential value of adjuvant chemotherapy for patients with stage II colon cancer is controversial. Pooled analyses and meta-analyses have suggested a 2% to 4% improvement in OS for patients treated with adjuvant fluorouracil (5-FU)–based therapy compared with observation.[8,9,10] (Refer to the Stage II Colon Cancer Treatment section of this summary for more information.)

Prior to 2000, 5-FU was the only useful cytotoxic chemotherapy in the adjuvant setting for patients with stage III colon cancer. Since 2000, capecitabine has been established as an equivalent alternative to 5-FU and leucovorin. The addition of oxaliplatin to 5-FU and leucovorin has been shown to improve OS compared with 5-FU and leucovorin alone. (Refer to the Stage III Colon Cancer Treatment section of this summary for more information.)

Adjuvant Radiation Therapy

While combined modality therapy with chemotherapy and radiation therapy has a significant role in the management of patients with rectal cancer (below the peritoneal reflection), the role of adjuvant radiation therapy for patients with colon cancer (above the peritoneal reflection) is not well defined. Patterns-of-care analyses and single-institution retrospective reviews suggest a role for radiation therapy in certain high-risk subsets of colon cancer patients (e.g., T4, tumor location in immobile sites, local perforation, obstruction, and residual disease postresection).[11,12,13,14,15,16]

Evidence (adjuvant radiation therapy):

1. Such observations led to the development of a phase III randomized intergroup study designed to test the benefit of adding radiation therapy to surgery and chemotherapy with 5-FU-levamisole for selected high-risk colon cancer patients (e.g., T4; or T3, N1–N2 ascending and/or descending colon).[17]
  • This clinical trial closed early secondary to inadequate patient accrual, and analysis of 222 enrolled patients (the original goal was 700 patients) demonstrated no relapse or OS benefit for the group receiving radiation therapy, though the sample size and statistical power were inadequate to exclude benefit.

Adjuvant radiation therapy has no current standard role in the management of patients with colon cancer following curative resection, although it may have a role for patients with residual disease.

References:

1. Bokey EL, Moore JW, Chapuis PH, et al.: Morbidity and mortality following laparoscopic-assisted right hemicolectomy for cancer. Dis Colon Rectum 39 (10 Suppl): S24-8, 1996.
2. Franklin ME Jr, Rosenthal D, Abrego-Medina D, et al.: Prospective comparison of open vs. laparoscopic colon surgery for carcinoma. Five-year results. Dis Colon Rectum 39 (10 Suppl): S35-46, 1996.
3. Fleshman JW, Nelson H, Peters WR, et al.: Early results of laparoscopic surgery for colorectal cancer. Retrospective analysis of 372 patients treated by Clinical Outcomes of Surgical Therapy (COST) Study Group. Dis Colon Rectum 39 (10 Suppl): S53-8, 1996.
4. Schwenk W, Böhm B, Müller JM: Postoperative pain and fatigue after laparoscopic or conventional colorectal resections. A prospective randomized trial. Surg Endosc 12 (9): 1131-6, 1998.
5. Clinical Outcomes of Surgical Therapy Study Group.: A comparison of laparoscopically assisted and open colectomy for colon cancer. N Engl J Med 350 (20): 2050-9, 2004.
6. Weeks JC, Nelson H, Gelber S, et al.: Short-term quality-of-life outcomes following laparoscopic-assisted colectomy vs open colectomy for colon cancer: a randomized trial. JAMA 287 (3): 321-8, 2002.
7. Lacy AM, García-Valdecasas JC, Delgado S, et al.: Laparoscopy-assisted colectomy versus open colectomy for treatment of non-metastatic colon cancer: a randomised trial. Lancet 359 (9325): 2224-9, 2002.
8. Efficacy of adjuvant fluorouracil and folinic acid in B2 colon cancer. International Multicentre Pooled Analysis of B2 Colon Cancer Trials (IMPACT B2) Investigators. J Clin Oncol 17 (5): 1356-63, 1999.
9. Gill S, Loprinzi CL, Sargent DJ, et al.: Pooled analysis of fluorouracil-based adjuvant therapy for stage II and III colon cancer: who benefits and by how much? J Clin Oncol 22 (10): 1797-806, 2004.
10. Mamounas E, Wieand S, Wolmark N, et al.: Comparative efficacy of adjuvant chemotherapy in patients with Dukes' B versus Dukes' C colon cancer: results from four National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project adjuvant studies (C-01, C-02, C-03, and C-04) J Clin Oncol 17 (5): 1349-55, 1999.
11. Willett C, Tepper JE, Cohen A, et al.: Local failure following curative resection of colonic adenocarcinoma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 10 (5): 645-51, 1984.
12. Willett C, Tepper JE, Cohen A, et al.: Obstructive and perforative colonic carcinoma: patterns of failure. J Clin Oncol 3 (3): 379-84, 1985.
13. Gunderson LL, Sosin H, Levitt S: Extrapelvic colon--areas of failure in a reoperation series: implications for adjuvant therapy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 11 (4): 731-41, 1985.
14. Willett CG, Fung CY, Kaufman DS, et al.: Postoperative radiation therapy for high-risk colon carcinoma. J Clin Oncol 11 (6): 1112-7, 1993.
15. Willett CG, Goldberg S, Shellito PC, et al.: Does postoperative irradiation play a role in the adjuvant therapy of stage T4 colon cancer? Cancer J Sci Am 5 (4): 242-7, 1999 Jul-Aug.
16. Schild SE, Gunderson LL, Haddock MG, et al.: The treatment of locally advanced colon cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 37 (1): 51-8, 1997.
17. Martenson JA Jr, Willett CG, Sargent DJ, et al.: Phase III study of adjuvant chemotherapy and radiation therapy compared with chemotherapy alone in the surgical adjuvant treatment of colon cancer: results of intergroup protocol 0130. J Clin Oncol 22 (16): 3277-83, 2004.

Stage 0 Colon Cancer Treatment Back to top

Stage 0 colon cancer is the most superficial of all the lesions and is limited to the mucosa without invasion of the lamina propria. Because of its superficial nature, the surgical procedure may be limited.

Standard Treatment Options for Stage 0 Colon Cancer

Surgery

Standard treatment options for stage 0 colon cancer include the following:

1. Local excision or simple polypectomy with clear margins.
2. Colon resection for larger lesions not amenable to local excision.

Current Clinical Trials

Check for U.S. clinical trials from NCI's list of cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with stage 0 colon cancer. The list of clinical trials can be further narrowed by location, drug, intervention, and other criteria.

General information about clinical trials is also available from the NCI Web site.

Stage I Colon Cancer Treatment Back to top

Because of its localized nature, stage I colon cancer has a high cure rate.

Standard Treatment Options for Stage I Colon Cancer

Surgery

Standard treatment options for stage I colon cancer include the following:

1. Wide surgical resection and anastomosis.

Evidence (laparoscopic techniques):

The role of laparoscopic techniques [1,2,3,4] in the treatment of colon cancer was examined in a multicenter, prospective, randomized trial (NCCTG-934653, now closed) comparing laparoscopic-assisted colectomy (LAC) with open colectomy.

  • Three-year recurrence rates and 3-year overall survival rates were similar in the two groups. (Refer to the Primary Surgical Therapy section in the Treatment Option Overview section of this summary for more information.)
  • The quality-of-life component of this trial has been published and minimal short-term quality-of-life benefits with LAC were reported.[5][Level of evidence: 1iiC]

Current Clinical Trials

Check for U.S. clinical trials from NCI's list of cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with stage I colon cancer. The list of clinical trials can be further narrowed by location, drug, intervention, and other criteria.

General information about clinical trials is also available from the NCI Web site.

References:

1. Bokey EL, Moore JW, Chapuis PH, et al.: Morbidity and mortality following laparoscopic-assisted right hemicolectomy for cancer. Dis Colon Rectum 39 (10 Suppl): S24-8, 1996.
2. Franklin ME Jr, Rosenthal D, Abrego-Medina D, et al.: Prospective comparison of open vs. laparoscopic colon surgery for carcinoma. Five-year results. Dis Colon Rectum 39 (10 Suppl): S35-46, 1996.
3. Fleshman JW, Nelson H, Peters WR, et al.: Early results of laparoscopic surgery for colorectal cancer. Retrospective analysis of 372 patients treated by Clinical Outcomes of Surgical Therapy (COST) Study Group. Dis Colon Rectum 39 (10 Suppl): S53-8, 1996.
4. Schwenk W, Böhm B, Müller JM: Postoperative pain and fatigue after laparoscopic or conventional colorectal resections. A prospective randomized trial. Surg Endosc 12 (9): 1131-6, 1998.
5. Weeks JC, Nelson H, Gelber S, et al.: Short-term quality-of-life outcomes following laparoscopic-assisted colectomy vs open colectomy for colon cancer: a randomized trial. JAMA 287 (3): 321-8, 2002.

Stage II Colon Cancer Treatment Back to top

Standard Treatment Options for Stage II Colon Cancer

Surgery

Standard treatment options for stage II colon cancer include the following:

1. Wide surgical resection and anastomosis.

Evidence (laparoscopic techniques):

The role of laparoscopic techniques [1,2,3,4] in the treatment of colon cancer was examined in a multicenter, prospective, randomized trial (NCCTG-934653, now closed) comparing laparoscopic-assisted colectomy (LAC) to open colectomy.

  • Three-year recurrence rates and 3-year overall survival (OS) rates were similar in the two groups. (Refer to the Primary Surgical Therapy section in the Treatment Option Overview section of this summary for more information.)
  • The quality-of-life component of this trial has been published and minimal short-term quality-of-life benefits with LAC were reported.[4][Level of evidence: 1iiC]

Treatment Options Under Clinical Evaluation

Adjuvant chemotherapy

The potential value of adjuvant chemotherapy for patients with stage II colon cancer remains controversial. Although subgroups of patients with stage II colon cancer may be at higher-than-average risk for recurrence (including those with anatomic features such as tumor adherence to adjacent structures, perforation, complete obstruction),[5,6,7] evidence is inconsistent that adjuvant 5-fluorouracil (5-FU)–based chemotherapy is associated with an improved OS compared with surgery alone.[8]

Features in patients with stage II colon cancer that are associated with an increased risk of recurrence include the following:

  • Inadequate lymph node sampling.
  • T4 disease.
  • Involvement of the visceral peritoneum.
  • A poorly differentiated histology.

The decision to use adjuvant chemotherapy for patients with stage II colon cancer is complicated and requires thoughtful consideration by both patients and their physicians. Adjuvant therapy is not indicated for most patients unless they are entered into a clinical trial.

Evidence (adjuvant chemotherapy):

1. The GRECCR-03 and NCRI-QUASAR1 trials evaluated the use of systemic or regional chemotherapy or biologic therapy. Following surgery, patients should be considered for entry into a carefully controlled clinical trial.
2. Investigators from the National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project (NSABP) have indicated that the reduction in risk of recurrence by adjuvant therapy in patients with stage II disease is of similar magnitude to the benefit seen in patients with stage III disease treated with adjuvant therapy, though an OS advantage has not been established.[9]
3. A meta-analysis of 1,000 stage II patients whose experience was amalgamated from a series of trials indicates a 2% advantage in disease-free survival at 5 years when adjuvant therapy–treated patients treated with 5-FU-leucovorin are compared with untreated controls.[10][Level of evidence: 1iiDii];[11]
4. The Cancer Care Ontario Practice Guideline Initiative Gastrointestinal Cancer Disease Site Group undertook a meta-analysis of the English language–published literature consisting of randomized trials in which adjuvant chemotherapy was compared with observation for patients with stage II colon cancer.
  • The mortality risk ratio was 0.87 (95% confidence interval, 0.75–1.01; P = .07).[12]

Based on these data, the American Society of Clinical Oncology issued a guideline stating "direct evidence from randomized controlled trials does not support the routine use of adjuvant chemotherapy for patients with stage II colon cancer."[13]

Current Clinical Trials

Check for U.S. clinical trials from NCI's list of cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with stage II colon cancer. The list of clinical trials can be further narrowed by location, drug, intervention, and other criteria.

General information about clinical trials is also available from the NCI Web site.

References:

1. Bokey EL, Moore JW, Chapuis PH, et al.: Morbidity and mortality following laparoscopic-assisted right hemicolectomy for cancer. Dis Colon Rectum 39 (10 Suppl): S24-8, 1996.
2. Franklin ME Jr, Rosenthal D, Abrego-Medina D, et al.: Prospective comparison of open vs. laparoscopic colon surgery for carcinoma. Five-year results. Dis Colon Rectum 39 (10 Suppl): S35-46, 1996.
3. Fleshman JW, Nelson H, Peters WR, et al.: Early results of laparoscopic surgery for colorectal cancer. Retrospective analysis of 372 patients treated by Clinical Outcomes of Surgical Therapy (COST) Study Group. Dis Colon Rectum 39 (10 Suppl): S53-8, 1996.
4. Weeks JC, Nelson H, Gelber S, et al.: Short-term quality-of-life outcomes following laparoscopic-assisted colectomy vs open colectomy for colon cancer: a randomized trial. JAMA 287 (3): 321-8, 2002.
5. Lanza G, Matteuzzi M, Gafá R, et al.: Chromosome 18q allelic loss and prognosis in stage II and III colon cancer. Int J Cancer 79 (4): 390-5, 1998.
6. Jen J, Kim H, Piantadosi S, et al.: Allelic loss of chromosome 18q and prognosis in colorectal cancer. N Engl J Med 331 (4): 213-21, 1994.
7. Merkel S, Wein A, Günther K, et al.: High-risk groups of patients with Stage II colon carcinoma. Cancer 92 (6): 1435-43, 2001.
8. Moertel CG, Fleming TR, Macdonald JS, et al.: Intergroup study of fluorouracil plus levamisole as adjuvant therapy for stage II/Dukes' B2 colon cancer. J Clin Oncol 13 (12): 2936-43, 1995.
9. Mamounas E, Wieand S, Wolmark N, et al.: Comparative efficacy of adjuvant chemotherapy in patients with Dukes' B versus Dukes' C colon cancer: results from four National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project adjuvant studies (C-01, C-02, C-03, and C-04) J Clin Oncol 17 (5): 1349-55, 1999.
10. Efficacy of adjuvant fluorouracil and folinic acid in B2 colon cancer. International Multicentre Pooled Analysis of B2 Colon Cancer Trials (IMPACT B2) Investigators. J Clin Oncol 17 (5): 1356-63, 1999.
11. Harrington DP: The tea leaves of small trials. J Clin Oncol 17 (5): 1336-8, 1999.
12. Figueredo A, Charette ML, Maroun J, et al.: Adjuvant therapy for stage II colon cancer: a systematic review from the Cancer Care Ontario Program in evidence-based care's gastrointestinal cancer disease site group. J Clin Oncol 22 (16): 3395-407, 2004.
13. Benson AB 3rd, Schrag D, Somerfield MR, et al.: American Society of Clinical Oncology recommendations on adjuvant chemotherapy for stage II colon cancer. J Clin Oncol 22 (16): 3408-19, 2004.

Stage III Colon Cancer Treatment Back to top

Stage III colon cancer denotes lymph node involvement. Studies have indicated that the number of lymph nodes involved affects prognosis; patients with one to three involved nodes have a significantly better survival than those with four or more involved nodes.

Standard Treatment Options for Stage III Colon Cancer

Standard treatment options for stage III colon cancer include the following:

1. Surgery.
2. Adjuvant chemotherapy.

Surgery

Surgery for stage III colon cancer is wide surgical resection and anastomosis.

Evidence (laparoscopic techniques):

The role of laparoscopic techniques [1,2,3,4] in the treatment of colon cancer was examined in a multicenter, prospective, randomized trial (NCCTG-934653, now closed) comparing laparoscopic-assisted colectomy (LAC) with open colectomy.

  • Three-year recurrence rates and 3-year overall survival (OS) rates were similar in the two groups. (Refer to the Primary Surgical Therapy section in the Treatment Option Overview section of this summary for more information.)
  • The quality-of-life component of this trial has been published and minimal short-term quality-of-life benefits with LAC were reported.[5][Level of evidence: 1iiC]

Adjuvant chemotherapy

Drug combinations described in this section include the following:

  • The FOLFOX4 regimen (oxaliplatin, leucovorin, and fluorouracil [5-FU]):
    • Oxaliplatin (85 mg/m2) administered as a 2-hour infusion on day 1; leucovorin (200 mg/m2) administered as a 2-hour infusion on day 1 and day 2; followed by a loading dose of 5-FU (400 mg/m2) intravenous bolus, then 5-FU (600 mg/m2) administered via ambulatory pump for a period of 22 hours on day 1 and day 2 every 2 weeks.
  • The Levamisole regimen (5-FU and levamisole):
    • Bolus 5-FU (450 mg/m2 per day) on days 1 to 5, then weekly 28 days later plus levamisole (50 mg) administered orally 3 times a day for 3 days every 2 weeks.
  • The Mayo Clinic or North Central Cancer Treatment Group (NCCTG) regimen (5-FU and low-dose leucovorin):
    • Bolus 5-FU (450 mg/m2)-leucovorin (20 mg/m2) administered daily for 5 days every 28 days.
  • The Roswell Park or National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project (NSABP) regimen (5-FU and high-dose leucovorin):
    • Bolus 5-FU (500 mg/m2)-leucovorin (500 mg/m2) administered weekly for 6 consecutive weeks every 8 weeks.

Chemotherapy regimens prior to 2000

Prior to 2000, 5-FU was the only useful cytotoxic chemotherapy in the adjuvant setting for patients with stage III colon cancer. Many of the early randomized studies of 5-FU in the adjuvant setting failed to show a significant improvement in survival for patients.[6,7,8,9] These trials employed 5-FU alone or 5-FU-semustine (methyl-CCNU).

Evidence (5-FU alone and 5-FU-semustine):

1. The NCCTG conducted a randomized trial comparing surgical resection alone with postoperative levamisole or 5-FU-levamisole.[10][Level of evidence: 1iiA]
  • A significant improvement in disease-free survival (DFS) was observed for patients with stage III colon cancer who received 5-FU-levamisole, but OS benefits were of borderline statistical significance.
  • An absolute survival benefit of approximately 12% (49% vs. 37%) was seen in patients with stage III disease treated with 5-FU-levamisole.
2. In a large confirmatory intergroup trial, 5-FU-levamisole prolonged DFS and OS in patients with stage III colon cancer compared with patients who received no treatment after surgery.[11][Level of evidence: 1iiA] Levamisole alone did not confer these benefits.
3. Subsequent studies tested the combination of 5-FU-leucovorin in the adjuvant treatment of patients with resected carcinoma of the colon.
  • Results of multiple randomized trials that have enrolled more than 4,000 patients comparing adjuvant chemotherapy with 5-FU-leucovorin to surgery or 5-FU-semustine-vincristine demonstrate a relative reduction in mortality of between 22% and 33% (3-year OS of 71%–78% increased to 75%–84%).[12,13,14]
4. The completed Intergroup trial 0089 (INT-0089) randomly assigned 3,794 patients with high-risk stage II or stage III colon cancer to one of the following four treatment arms:[15]
  • The Mayo Clinic regimen administered for a total of six cycles.
  • The Roswell Park regimen administered for a total of four cycles.
  • The Mayo Clinic regimen administered with levamisole for six cycles.
  • The Levamisole regimen administered for a total of 1 year.

Results:

  • Five-year OS ranged from 49% for the Mayo Clinic regimen with levamisole to 60% for the Mayo Clinic regimen, and there were no statistically significant differences among treatment arms.[15][Level of evidence: 1iiA]
  • A preliminary report in November 1997 demonstrated a statistically significant advantage for OS for the Mayo Clinic regimen with levamisole compared with the Levamisole regimen. This difference became insignificant with longer follow-up.
  • Overall, grade 3 or greater toxicity occurred more frequently for the Mayo Clinic regimen and the Mayo Clinic regimen with levamisole. In addition, the Mayo Clinic regimen was significantly more toxic with levamisole than without levamisole.
  • The death rate for all four regimens ranged from 0.5% to 1%.
  • Because of its ease of use and its good toxicity profile, the Roswell Park regimen became the preferred adjuvant regimen used in the United States and was often the control arm in subsequent randomized studies.
5. In addition to INT-0089, multiple studies have refined the use of 5-FU-leucovorin in the adjuvant setting and can be summarized as follows:
  • Levamisole is unnecessary when using leucovorin.[15]
  • Treatment that includes 6 to 8 months of 5-FU-leucovorin is equivalent to 12 months of therapy.[16,17,18]
  • Treatment that includes 24 weeks of adjuvant 5-FU-leucovorin is equivalent to 36 weeks of therapy.[19]
  • High-dose leucovorin is equivalent to low-dose leucovorin.[20]
  • A meta-analysis of seven trials revealed no significant difference in efficacy or toxicity among patients 70 years or younger compared with patients older than 70 years.[21]
  • An infusional deGramont LV5FU2 schedule is safer than a bolus modified Mayo Clinic schedule of 5-FU-leucovorin.[19]

Chemotherapy regimens after 2000

Capecitabine

Capecitabine is an oral fluoropyrimidine that undergoes a three-step enzymatic conversion to 5-FU with the last step occurring in the tumor cell. For patients with metastatic colon cancer, two studies have demonstrated the equivalence of capecitabine to 5-FU-leucovorin.[22,23]

For patients with stage III colon cancer, capecitabine provides equivalent outcome to intravenous 5-FU and leucovorin.

Evidence (capecitabine):

1. A multicenter European study compared capecitabine (1,250 mg/m2) administered twice daily for days 1 to 14, then given every 21 days for eight cycles against the Mayo Clinic schedule of 5-FU and low-dose leucovorin for patients with stage III colon cancer.[24]
  • The study demonstrated that DFS at 3 years is equivalent for patients receiving capecitabine or 5-FU-leucovorin (hazard ratio [HR], 0.87; P < .001).[24][Level of evidence: 1iiDii]
  • Hand-foot syndrome and hyperbilirubinemia were significantly more common for patients receiving capecitabine, but diarrhea, nausea or vomiting, stomatitis, alopecia, and neutropenia were significantly less common.
  • Of patients receiving capecitabine, 57% required a dose modification.
  • For patients with stage III colon cancer in whom treatment with 5-FU-leucovorin is planned, capecitabine is an equivalent alternative.

Oxaliplatin

Oxaliplatin has significant activity when combined with 5-FU-leucovorin in patients with metastatic colorectal cancer.

Evidence (oxaliplatin):

1. In the 2,246 patients with resected stage II or stage III colon cancer in the completed Multicenter International Study of Oxaliplatin/5-Fluorouracil/Leucovorin in the Adjuvant Treatment of Colon Cancer (MOSAIC [NCT00275210]) study, the toxic effects and efficacy of FOLFOX4 were compared with the same 5-FU-leucovorin regimen without oxaliplatin administered for 6 months.[25] Based on results from the MOSAIC trial, adjuvant FOLFOX4 demonstrated prolonged OS for patients with stage III colon cancer compared with patients receiving 5-FU-leucovorin without oxaliplatin.[26]
  • The preliminary results of the study with 37 months of follow-up demonstrated a significant improvement in DFS at 3 years (77.8% vs. 72.9%, P = .01) in favor of FOLFOX4. When initially reported, there was no difference in OS.[26][Level of evidence: 1iiDii]
  • Further follow-up at 6 years demonstrated that the OS for all patients (both stage II and stage III) entered into the study was not significantly different (OS = 78.5% vs. 76.0%; HR, 0.84; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.71–1.00). On subset analysis, the 6-year OS in patients with stage III colon cancer was 72.9% in the patients receiving FOLFOX4 and 68.7% in the patients receiving 5-FU-leucovorin (HR, 0.80; 95% CI, 0.65–0.97, P = .023).[26][Level of evidence: 1iiA]
  • Patients treated with FOLFOX4 experienced more frequent toxic effects consisting mainly of neutropenia (41% >grade 3) and reversible peripheral sensorial neuropathy (12.4% >grade 3).

FOLFOX has become the reference standard for the next generation of clinical trials for patients with stage III colon cancer.[26]

Treatment Options Under Clinical Evaluation

Eligible patients should be considered for entry into carefully controlled clinical trials comparing various postoperative chemotherapy regimens.[27]

Current Clinical Trials

Check for U.S. clinical trials from NCI's list of cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with stage III colon cancer. The list of clinical trials can be further narrowed by location, drug, intervention, and other criteria.

General information about clinical trials is also available from the NCI Web site.

References:

1. Bokey EL, Moore JW, Chapuis PH, et al.: Morbidity and mortality following laparoscopic-assisted right hemicolectomy for cancer. Dis Colon Rectum 39 (10 Suppl): S24-8, 1996.
2. Franklin ME Jr, Rosenthal D, Abrego-Medina D, et al.: Prospective comparison of open vs. laparoscopic colon surgery for carcinoma. Five-year results. Dis Colon Rectum 39 (10 Suppl): S35-46, 1996.
3. Fleshman JW, Nelson H, Peters WR, et al.: Early results of laparoscopic surgery for colorectal cancer. Retrospective analysis of 372 patients treated by Clinical Outcomes of Surgical Therapy (COST) Study Group. Dis Colon Rectum 39 (10 Suppl): S53-8, 1996.
4. Schwenk W, Böhm B, Müller JM: Postoperative pain and fatigue after laparoscopic or conventional colorectal resections. A prospective randomized trial. Surg Endosc 12 (9): 1131-6, 1998.
5. Weeks JC, Nelson H, Gelber S, et al.: Short-term quality-of-life outcomes following laparoscopic-assisted colectomy vs open colectomy for colon cancer: a randomized trial. JAMA 287 (3): 321-8, 2002.
6. Panettiere FJ, Goodman PJ, Costanzi JJ, et al.: Adjuvant therapy in large bowel adenocarcinoma: long-term results of a Southwest Oncology Group Study. J Clin Oncol 6 (6): 947-54, 1988.
7. Adjuvant therapy of colon cancer--results of a prospectively randomized trial. Gastrointestinal Tumor Study Group. N Engl J Med 310 (12): 737-43, 1984.
8. Higgins GA Jr, Amadeo JH, McElhinney J, et al.: Efficacy of prolonged intermittent therapy with combined 5-fluorouracil and methyl-CCNU following resection for carcinoma of the large bowel. A Veterans Administration Surgical Oncology Group report. Cancer 53 (1): 1-8, 1984.
9. Buyse M, Zeleniuch-Jacquotte A, Chalmers TC: Adjuvant therapy of colorectal cancer. Why we still don't know. JAMA 259 (24): 3571-8, 1988.
10. Laurie JA, Moertel CG, Fleming TR, et al.: Surgical adjuvant therapy of large-bowel carcinoma: an evaluation of levamisole and the combination of levamisole and fluorouracil. The North Central Cancer Treatment Group and the Mayo Clinic. J Clin Oncol 7 (10): 1447-56, 1989.
11. Moertel CG, Fleming TR, Macdonald JS, et al.: Levamisole and fluorouracil for adjuvant therapy of resected colon carcinoma. N Engl J Med 322 (6): 352-8, 1990.
12. Wolmark N, Rockette H, Fisher B, et al.: The benefit of leucovorin-modulated fluorouracil as postoperative adjuvant therapy for primary colon cancer: results from National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project protocol C-03. J Clin Oncol 11 (10): 1879-87, 1993.
13. Efficacy of adjuvant fluorouracil and folinic acid in colon cancer. International Multicentre Pooled Analysis of Colon Cancer Trials (IMPACT) investigators. Lancet 345 (8955): 939-44, 1995.
14. O'Connell M, Mailliard J, Macdonald J, et al.: An intergroup trial of intensive course 5FU and low dose leucovorin as surgical adjuvant therapy for high risk colon cancer. [Abstract] Proceedings of the American Society of Clinical Oncology 12: A-552, 190, 1993.
15. Haller DG, Catalano PJ, Macdonald JS, et al.: Phase III study of fluorouracil, leucovorin, and levamisole in high-risk stage II and III colon cancer: final report of Intergroup 0089. J Clin Oncol 23 (34): 8671-8, 2005.
16. Wolmark N, Bryant J, Smith R, et al.: Adjuvant 5-fluorouracil and leucovorin with or without interferon alfa-2a in colon carcinoma: National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project protocol C-05. J Natl Cancer Inst 90 (23): 1810-6, 1998.
17. Wolmark N, Rockette H, Mamounas E, et al.: Clinical trial to assess the relative efficacy of fluorouracil and leucovorin, fluorouracil and levamisole, and fluorouracil, leucovorin, and levamisole in patients with Dukes' B and C carcinoma of the colon: results from National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project C-04. J Clin Oncol 17 (11): 3553-9, 1999.
18. Okuno SH, Woodhouse CL, Loprinzi CL, et al.: Phase III placebo-controlled clinical trial evaluation of glutamine for decreasing mucositis in patients receiving 5FU (fluorouracil)-base chemotherapy. [Abstract] Proceedings of the American Society of Clinical Oncology 17: A-256, 1998.
19. Andre T, Colin P, Louvet C, et al.: Semimonthly versus monthly regimen of fluorouracil and leucovorin administered for 24 or 36 weeks as adjuvant therapy in stage II and III colon cancer: results of a randomized trial. J Clin Oncol 21 (15): 2896-903, 2003.
20. Comparison of flourouracil with additional levamisole, higher-dose folinic acid, or both, as adjuvant chemotherapy for colorectal cancer: a randomised trial. QUASAR Collaborative Group. Lancet 355 (9215): 1588-96, 2000.
21. Sargent DJ, Goldberg RM, Jacobson SD, et al.: A pooled analysis of adjuvant chemotherapy for resected colon cancer in elderly patients. N Engl J Med 345 (15): 1091-7, 2001.
22. Van Cutsem E, Twelves C, Cassidy J, et al.: Oral capecitabine compared with intravenous fluorouracil plus leucovorin in patients with metastatic colorectal cancer: results of a large phase III study. J Clin Oncol 19 (21): 4097-106, 2001.
23. Hoff PM, Ansari R, Batist G, et al.: Comparison of oral capecitabine versus intravenous fluorouracil plus leucovorin as first-line treatment in 605 patients with metastatic colorectal cancer: results of a randomized phase III study. J Clin Oncol 19 (8): 2282-92, 2001.
24. Twelves C, Wong A, Nowacki MP, et al.: Capecitabine as adjuvant treatment for stage III colon cancer. N Engl J Med 352 (26): 2696-704, 2005.
25. André T, Boni C, Mounedji-Boudiaf L, et al.: Oxaliplatin, fluorouracil, and leucovorin as adjuvant treatment for colon cancer. N Engl J Med 350 (23): 2343-51, 2004.
26. André T, Boni C, Navarro M, et al.: Improved overall survival with oxaliplatin, fluorouracil, and leucovorin as adjuvant treatment in stage II or III colon cancer in the MOSAIC trial. J Clin Oncol 27 (19): 3109-16, 2009.
27. Rougier P, Nordlinger B: Large scale trial for adjuvant treatment in high risk resected colorectal cancers. Rationale to test the combination of loco-regional and systemic chemotherapy and to compare l-leucovorin + 5-FU to levamisole + 5-FU. Ann Oncol 4 (Suppl 2): 21-8, 1993.

Stage IV and Recurrent Colon Cancer Treatment Back to top

Stage IV colon cancer denotes distant metastatic disease. Treatment of recurrent colon cancer depends on the sites of recurrent disease demonstrable by physical examination and/or radiographic studies. In addition to standard radiographic procedures, radioimmunoscintography may add clinical information that may affect management.[1] Such approaches have not led to improvements in long-term outcome measures such as survival.

Treatment Options for Stage IV and Recurrent Colon Cancer

Treatment options for stage IV and recurrent colon cancer include the following:

1. Surgical resection of locally recurrent cancer.
2. Surgical resection and anastomosis or bypass of obstructing or bleeding primary lesions in selected metastatic cases.
3. Resection of liver metastases in selected metastatic patients (5-year cure rate for resection of solitary or combination metastases exceeds 20%) or ablation in selected patients.[2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11]
4. Resection of isolated pulmonary or ovarian metastases in selected patients.[12]
5. Palliative radiation therapy.
6. Palliative chemotherapy.
7. Targeted therapy.
8. Clinical trials evaluating new drugs and biological therapy.
9. Clinical trials comparing various chemotherapy regimens or biological therapy, alone or in combination.

Treatment of Liver Metastasis

Approximately 50% of colon cancer patients will be diagnosed with hepatic metastases, either at the time of initial presentation or as a result of disease recurrence. Although only a small proportion of patients with hepatic metastases are candidates for surgical resection, advances in tumor ablation techniques and in both regional and systemic chemotherapy administration provide for a number of treatment options. These include the following:

  • Surgery.
  • Neoadjuvant chemotherapy.
  • Local ablation.
  • Adjuvant chemotherapy.
  • Intra-arterial chemotherapy.

Surgery

Hepatic metastasis may be considered to be resectable based on the following:[5,7,13,14,15,16]

  • Limited number of lesions.
  • Intrahepatic locations of lesions.
  • Lack of major vascular involvement.
  • Absent or limited extrahepatic disease.
  • Sufficient functional hepatic reserve.

For patients with hepatic metastasis considered to be resectable, a negative margin resection resulted in 5-year survival rates of 25% to 40% in mostly nonrandomized studies, such as the NCCTG-934653 trial.[5,7,13,14,15,16] Improved surgical techniques and advances in preoperative imaging have allowed for better patient selection for resection. In addition, multiple studies with multiagent chemotherapy have demonstrated that patients with metastatic disease isolated to the liver, which historically would be considered unresectable, can occasionally be made resectable after the administration of chemotherapy.[17]

Neoadjuvant chemotherapy

Patients with hepatic metastases that are deemed unresectable will occasionally become candidates for resection if they have a good response to chemotherapy. These patients have 5-year survival rates similar to patients who initially had resectable disease.[17]

Local ablation

Radiofrequency ablation has emerged as a safe technique (2% major morbidity and <1% mortality rate) that may provide for long-term tumor control.[18,19,20,21,22,23,24] Radiofrequency ablation and cryosurgical ablation [25,26,27,28] remain options for patients with tumors that cannot be resected and for patients who are not candidates for liver resection.

Other local ablative techniques that have been used to manage liver metastases include embolization and interstitial radiation therapy.[29,30] Patients with limited pulmonary metastases, and patients with both pulmonary and hepatic metastases, may also be considered for surgical resection, with 5-year survival possible in highly-selected patients.[12,31,32]

Adjuvant chemotherapy

The role of adjuvant chemotherapy after potentially curative resection of liver metastases is uncertain.

Evidence (adjuvant chemotherapy):

1. A trial of hepatic arterial floxuridine and dexamethasone plus systemic fluorouracil (5-FU) and leucovorin compared with systemic 5-FU plus leucovorin alone showed improved 2-year progression-free survival (PFS) (57% vs. 42%, P = .07) and overall survival (OS) (86% vs. 72%, P = .03) but did not show a significant statistical difference in median survival, compared with systemic 5-FU therapy alone.
  • Median survival in the combined therapy arm was 72.2 months versus 59.3 months in the monotherapy arm (P = .21).[33][Level of evidence: 1iiA]
2. A second trial preoperatively randomly assigned 109 patients who had one to three potentially resectable colorectal hepatic metastases to either no further therapy or postoperative hepatic arterial floxuridine plus systemic 5-FU.[34] Of those randomly assigned patients, 27% were deemed ineligible at the time of surgery, which left only 75 patients evaluable for recurrence and survival.
  • While liver recurrence was decreased, median or 4-year survival was not significantly different.

Further studies are required to evaluate this treatment approach and to determine if more effective systemic combination chemotherapy alone may provide similar results compared with hepatic intra-arterial therapy plus systemic treatment.

Intra-arterial chemotherapy

Hepatic intra-arterial chemotherapy with floxuridine for liver metastases has produced higher overall response rates but no consistent improvement in survival when compared with systemic chemotherapy.[2,35,36,37,38,39] A meta-analysis of the randomized studies, which were all done in the era when only fluoropyrimidines were available for systemic therapy, did not demonstrate a survival advantage.[40]

Several studies show increased local toxic effects with hepatic infusional therapy, including liver function abnormalities and fatal biliary sclerosis.

Treatment of Stage IV and Recurrent Colon Cancer

  • Surgery.
  • Chemotherapy and targeted therapy.
  • Second-line chemotherapy.

Surgery

Treatment of patients with recurrent or advanced colon cancer depends on the location of the disease. For patients with locally recurrent and/or liver-only and/or lung-only metastatic disease, surgical resection, if feasible, is the only potentially curative treatment.

Chemotherapy and targeted therapy

Currently, there are eight active and approved drugs for patients with metastatic colorectal cancer that are used alone and in combination with other drugs:

  • 5-FU.
  • Capecitabine.
  • Irinotecan.
  • Oxaliplatin.
  • Bevacizumab.
  • Cetuximab.
  • Aflibercept.
  • Panitumumab.

Drug combinations described in this section include the following:

  • The Arbeitsgemeinschaft Internische Onkologie (AIO) or German AIO regimen (folic acid, 5-FU, and irinotecan):
    • Irinotecan (100 mg/m2) administered as a 2-hour infusion on day 1; leucovorin (500 mg/m2) administered as a 2-hour infusion on day 1; followed by 5-FU (2,000 mg/m2) intravenous (IV) bolus via ambulatory pump administered for a period of 24 hours on a weekly basis four times a year (52 weeks).
  • The CAPOX regimen:
    • Capecitabine (1,000 mg/m2) twice a day on days 1 through 14 plus oxaliplatin (70 mg/m2) on days 1 and 8 every 3 weeks.
  • The Douillard regimen (folic acid, 5-FU, and irinotecan):
    • Irinotecan (180 mg/m2) administered as a 2-hour infusion on day 1; leucovorin (200 mg/m2) administered as a 2-hour infusion on day 1 and day 2; followed by a loading dose of 5-FU (400 mg/m2) IV bolus, then 5-FU (600 mg/m2) via ambulatory pump administered for a period of 22 hours on day 1 and day 2 every 2 weeks.
  • The FOLFOX4 regimen (oxaliplatin, leucovorin, and 5-FU):
    • Oxaliplatin (85 mg/m2) administered as a 2-hour infusion on day 1; leucovorin (200 mg/m2) administered as a 2-hour infusion on day 1 and day 2; followed by a loading dose of 5-FU (400 mg/m2) IV bolus, then 5-FU (600 mg/m2) administered via ambulatory pump for a period of 22 hours on day 1 and day 2 every 2 weeks.
  • The FOLFOX6 regimen (oxaliplatin, leucovorin, and 5-FU):
    • Oxaliplatin (85–100 mg/m2) administered as a 2-hour infusion on day 1; leucovorin (400 mg/m2) administered as a 2-hour infusion on day 1; followed by a loading dose of 5-FU (400 mg/m2) IV bolus on day 1, then 5-FU (2,400–3,000 mg/m2) administered via ambulatory pump for a period of 46 hours every 2 weeks.
  • The FOLFIRI regimen (folic acid, 5-FU, and irinotecan):
    • Irinotecan (180 mg/m2) administered as a 2-hour infusion on day 1; leucovorin (400 mg/m2) administered as a 2-hour infusion on day 1; followed by a loading dose of 5-FU (400 mg/m2) IV bolus administered on day 1, then 5-FU (2,400–3,000 mg/m2) administered via ambulatory pump for a period of 46 hours every 2 weeks.
  • The FUFOX regimen:
    • Oxaliplatin (50 mg/m2) plus leucovorin (500 mg/m2) plus 5-FU (2,000 mg/m2) as a 22-hour continuous infusion on days 1, 8, 22, and 29 every 36 days.
  • The FUOX regimen:
    • Continuous infusion 5-FU (2,250 mg/m2) during 48 hours on days 1, 8, 15, 22, 29 and 36 plus oxaliplatin (85 mg/m2) on days 1, 15, and 29 every 6 weeks.
  • The IFL (or Saltz) regimen (irinotecan, 5-FU, and leucovorin):
    • Irinotecan (125 mg/m2), 5-FU (500 mg/m2) IV bolus, and leucovorin (20 mg/m2) IV bolus administered weekly for 4 out of 6 weeks.
  • The XELOX regimen:
    • Oral capecitabine (1,000 mg/m2) twice a day for 14 days plus oxaliplatin (130 mg/m2) on day 1 every 3 weeks.

5-FU

When 5-FU was the only active chemotherapy drug, trials in patients with locally advanced, unresectable, or metastatic disease demonstrated partial responses and prolongation of the time-to-progression (TTP) of disease [41,42] as well as improved survival and quality of life for patients receiving chemotherapy, compared with the best supportive care.[43,44,45] Several trials have analyzed the activity and toxic effects of various 5-FU-leucovorin regimens using different doses and administration schedules and showed essentially equivalent results with a median survival time in the 12-month range.[46]

Capecitabine

Prior to the advent of multiagent chemotherapy, two randomized studies demonstrated that capecitabine was associated with equivalent efficacy when compared with the Mayo Clinic regimen of 5-FU-leucovorin.[47,48][Level of evidence: 1iiA]

Irinotecan

Three randomized studies demonstrated improved response rates, PFS, and OS when irinotecan or oxaliplatin was combined with 5-FU-leucovorin.[49,50,51]

Evidence (irinotecan):

1. An intergroup study (NCCTG-N9741) compared IFL with FOLFOX4 in first-line treatment for patients with metastatic colorectal cancer.
  • Patients assigned to FOLFOX4 experienced an improved PFS (median, 6.9 months vs. 8.7 months; P = .014; hazard ratio [HR], 0.74; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.61–0.89) and OS (15.0 months vs. 19.5 months, P = .001; HR, 0.66; 95% CI, 0.54–0.82) compared with patients randomly assigned to IFL.[Level of evidence: 1iiA]
2. Subsequently, two studies compared FOLFOX with FOLFIRI, and patients were allowed to cross over upon progression on first-line therapy, respectively.[52,53][Level of evidence: 1iiDiii]
  • PFS and OS were identical between the treatment arms in both studies.
3. The Bolus, Infusional, or Capecitabine with Camptosar-Celecoxib (BICC-C) trial evaluated several different irinotecan-based regimens in patients with previously untreated metastatic colorectal cancer, including FOLFIRI, mIFL, and Capecitabine/irinotecan (CAPIRI).[54][Level of evidence: 1iiA]
  • The study randomly assigned 430 patients and was closed early due to poor accrual.
  • The patients who received FOLFIRI had a better PFS than the patients who received either mIFL (7.6 months vs. 5.9 months, P = .004) or CAPIRI (7.6 months vs. 5.8 months, P = .015).
  • Patients who received CAPIRI had the highest grade 3 or higher rates of nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, dehydration, and hand-foot syndrome.

Since the publication of these studies, the use of either FOLFOX or FOLFIRI is considered acceptable for first-line treatment of patients with metastatic colorectal cancer.

When using an irinotecan-based regimen as first-line treatment of metastatic colorectal cancer, FOLFIRI is preferred.[54][Level of evidence: 1iiDiii]

Oxaliplatin

Randomized phase III trials have addressed the equivalence of substituting capecitabine for infusional 5-FU. Two phase III studies have evaluated FUOX versus CAPOX.[55,56]

Evidence (oxaliplatin):

1. The AIO Colorectal Study Group randomly assigned 474 patients to either FUFOX or CAPOX.
  • The median PFS was 7.1 months for the CAPOX arm and 8.0 months for the FUFOX arm (HR, 1.17; 95% CI, 0.96–1.43, P = .117), and the HR was in the prespecified equivalence range.
2. The Spanish Cooperative Group randomly assigned 348 patients to CAPOX or FUOX.[55]
  • The TTP was 8.9 months versus 9.5 months (P = .153) and met the prespecified range for noninferiority.[55][Level of evidence: 1iiDiii]

When using an oxaliplatin-based regimen as first-line treatment of metastatic colorectal cancer, a CAPOX regimen is not inferior to a FUOX regimen.

Bevacizumab

Bevacizumab is a partially humanized monoclonal antibody that binds to vascular endothelial growth factor. Bevacizumab can reasonably be added to either FOLFIRI or FOLFOX for patients undergoing first-line treatment of metastatic colorectal cancer.

Evidence (bevacizumab):

1. After bevacizumab was approved, the BICC-C trial was amended, and an additional 117 patients were randomly assigned to receive FOLFIRI/bevacizumab or mIFL/bevacizumab.
  • Although the primary endpoint, PFS, was not significantly different, patients receiving FOLFIRI/bevacizumab had a significantly better OS (not yet reached with a median follow-up of 22.6 months vs. 19.2 months, P = .007).
2. Patients with previously untreated metastatic colorectal cancer were randomly assigned to either IFL or IFL and bevacizumab.[57]
  • The patients randomly assigned to IFL and bevacizumab experienced a significantly better PFS (10.6 months in the group given IFL and bevacizumab, as compared with 6.2 months in the group given IFL and placebo; HR for disease progression, 0.54; P < .001) and OS (20.3 months in the group given IFL and bevacizumab, as compared with 15.6 months in the group given IFL and placebo corresponding to an HR for death, 0.66; P < .001).[57][Level of evidence: 1iiA]
3. Despite the lack of direct data, in standard practice, bevacizumab was added to FOLFOX as a standard first-line regimen based on the results of the NCCTG-N9741 trial.[58] Subsequently, in a randomized phase III study, patients with untreated stage IV colorectal cancer were randomly assigned in a 2 × 2 factorial design to CAPOX versus FOLFOX4, then to bevacizumab versus placebo. PFS was the primary endpoint.
  • In this trial, 1,401 patients were randomly assigned, and the median PFS was 9.4 months for patients receiving bevacizumab and 8.0 months for the patients receiving placebo (HR, 0.83; 97.5% CI, 0.72–0.95, P = .0023).[59][Level of evidence: 1iiDiii]
  • Median OS was 21.3 months for patients receiving bevacizumab and 19.9 months for patients receiving placebo (HR, 0.89; 97.5% CI, 0.76–1.03, P = .077).
  • The median PFS (intention-to-treat analysis) was 8.0 months in the pooled CAPOX-containing arms versus 8.5 months in the FOLFOX4-containing arms (HR, 1.04; 97.5% CI, 0.93–1.16), with the upper limit of the 97.5% CI being below the predefined noninferiority margin of 1.23.[59,60]
  • The effect of bevacizumab on OS is likely to be less than what was seen in the original Hurwitz study.[57]
4. Investigators from the Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group randomly assigned patients who had progressed on 5-FU-leucovorin and irinotecan to either FOLFOX or FOLFOX and bevacizumab.
  • Patients randomly assigned to FOLFOX and bevacizumab experienced a statistically significant improvement in PFS (7.43 months vs. 4.7 months, HR, 0.61; P < .0001) and OS (12.9 months vs. 10.8 months, HR, 0.75; P = .0011).[61][Level of evidence: 1iiA]

Based on these studies, bevacizumab can reasonably be added to either FOLFIRI or FOLFOX for patients undergoing first-line treatment of metastatic colorectal cancer. A major question was whether the use of bevacizumab after first-line therapy was warranted when bevacizumab was used as a component of first-line therapy. At the 2012 American Society of Clinical Oncology Annual Meeting, data was presented from a randomized, controlled trial.[62] In the trial, 820 patients with metastatic colorectal cancer, after progressing on first-line chemotherapy that included bevacizumab, were randomly assigned to chemotherapy without bevacizumab or chemotherapy with bevacizumab. Patients who received bevacizumab experienced an improved OS compared with the patients who did not receive bevacizumab. Median OS was 11.2 months for patients who received bevacizumab plus chemotherapy and 9.8 months for patients who received chemotherapy without bevacizumab (HR, 0.81; 95% CI, 0.69–0.94; unstratified log-rank test, P = .0062). Median PFS was 5.7 months for patients who received bevacizumab plus chemotherapy and 4.1 months for those who received chemotherapy without bevacizumab (HR, 0.68; 95% CI, 0.59–0.78; unstratified log-rank test, P < .0001).[62]][Level of evidence: 1iiA]

Aflibercept

Aflibercept is a novel anti-VEGF molecule and has been evaluated as a component of second-line therapy in patients with metastatic colorectal cancer. In one trial, 1,226 patients were randomly assigned to receive aflibercept (4 mg/kg IV) or placebo every 2 weeks in combination with FOLFIRI.[63] Patients who received aflibercept plus FOLFIRI had a significantly improved OS relative to placebo plus FOLFIRI (HR, 0.817; 95.34% CI, 0.713–0.937; P = .0032) with median survival times of 13.50 months versus 12.06 months, respectively. Aflibercept also significantly improved PFS (HR, 0.758; 95% CI, 0.661–0.869; P < .0001), with median PFS times of 6.90 months versus 4.67 months, respectively. On the basis of these results, the use of FOLFIRI plus aflibercept is an acceptable second-line regimen for patients previously treated with FOLFOX-based chemotherapy.[63][Level of evidence: 1A] Whether to continue bevacizumab or initiate aflibercept in second-line therapy has not been addressed as yet in any clinical trial, and there are no data available.

Cetuximab

Cetuximab is a partially humanized monoclonal antibody against the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). Because cetuximab affects tyrosine kinase signaling at the surface of the cell membrane, tumors with mutations causing activation of the pathway downstream of the EGFR, such as KRAS mutations, are not sensitive to its effects. The addition of cetuximab to multiagent chemotherapy improves survival in patients with colon cancers that lack a KRAS mutation (i.e., KRAS wild type). Importantly, patients with mutant KRAS tumors may experience worse outcome when cetuximab is added to multiagent chemotherapy regimens containing bevacizumab.

Evidence (cetuximab):

1. For patients who have progressed on irinotecan-containing regimens, a randomized, phase II study was performed of either cetuximab or irinotecan and cetuximab.
  • The median TTP for patients receiving cetuximab was 1.5 months, and the median TTP for patients receiving irinotecan and cetuximab was 4.2 months.[64][Level of evidence: 1iiDiii]
  • On the basis of this study, cetuximab was approved for use in patients with metastatic colorectal cancer refractory to 5-FU and irinotecan.
2. The Crystal Study (NCT00154102) randomly assigned 1,198 patients with stage IV colorectal cancer to FOLFIRI with or without cetuximab.[65]
  • The addition of cetuximab was associated with an improved PFS (HR, 0.85; 95% CI, 0.72–0.99, P = .048 by a stratified log rank test), but not OS.[65][Level of Evidence: 1iiDii]
  • Retrospective studies of patients with metastatic colorectal cancer have suggested that responses to anti-EGFR antibody therapy are confined to patients with tumors that harbor wild types of KRAS (i.e., lack activating mutations at codon 12 or 13 of the KRAS gene).
  • A subset analysis evaluating efficacy vis a vis KRAS status was done in patients enrolled on the Crystal Study. There was a significant interaction for KRAS mutation status and treatment for tumor response (P = .03) but not for PFS (P = .07). Among patients with KRAS wild-type tumors, the HR favored the FOLFIRI/cetuximab group (HR, 0.68; 95% CI, 0.50–0.94).
3. In a randomized trial, patients with metastatic colorectal cancer received capecitabine/oxaliplatin/bevacizumab with or without cetuximab.[66]
  • The median PFS was 9.4 months in the group receiving cetuximab and 10.7 months in the group not receiving cetuximab (P = .01).
  • In a subset analysis, cetuximab-treated patients with tumors bearing a mutated KRAS gene had significantly decreased PFS compared with cetuximab-treated patients with wild-type KRAS tumors (8.1 months vs. 10.5 months; P = .04).
  • Cetuximab-treated patients with mutated KRAS tumors had a significantly shorter PFS compared with patients with mutated KRAS tumors not receiving cetuximab (8.1 months vs. 12.5 months; P = .003) as well as OS (17.2 months vs. 24.9 months; P = .03).[66][Level of evidence: 1iiDiii]
4. The Medical Research Council (MRC) (COIN [NCT00182715] trial) sought to answer the question of whether adding cetuximab to combination chemotherapy with a fluoropyrimidine and oxaliplatin in first-line treatment for patients with first-line KRAS wild-type tumors was beneficial.[67,68]
  • In addition, the MRC sought to evaluate the effect of intermittent chemotherapy versus continuous chemotherapy. The 1,630 patients were randomly assigned to three treatment groups:
    • Arm A: fluoropyrimidine/oxaliplatin.
    • Arm B: fluoropyrimidine/oxaliplatin/cetuximab.
    • Arm C: intermittent fluoropyrimidine/oxaliplatin.
  • The comparisons between arms A and B and arms A and C were analyzed and published separately.[67,68]
  • In patients with KRAS wild-type tumors (arm A, n = 367; arm B, n = 362), OS did not differ between treatment groups (median survival, 17.9 months [interquartile range (IQR) 10.3–29.2] in the control group vs. 17.0 months [IQR, 9.4–30.1] in the cetuximab group; HR, 1.04; 95% CI, 0.87–1.23, P = .67). Similarly, there was no effect on PFS (8.6 months [IQR, 5.0–12.5] in the control group versus 8.6 months [IQR, 5.1–13.8] in the cetuximab group; HR, 0.96; 0.82–1.12, P = .60).[67,68][Level of evidence: 1iiA]
  • The reasons for lack of benefit in adding cetuximab are unclear. Subset analyses suggest that the use of capecitabine was associated with an inferior outcome, and the use of second-line therapy was less frequent in patients treated with cetuximab.
  • There was no difference between the continuously treated patients (arm A) and the intermittently treated patients (arm C). Median survival in the intent-to-treat population (n = 815 in both groups) was 15.8 months (IQR, 9.4–26.1) in arm A and 14.4 months (IQR, 8.0–24.7) in arm C (HR, 1.084; 80% CI, 1.008–1.165). In the per-protocol population, which included only those patients who were free from progression at 12 weeks and randomly assigned to continue treatment or go on a chemotherapy holiday (arm A, n = 467; arm C, n = 511), median survival was 19.6 months (IQR, 13.0–28.1) in arm A and 18.0 months (IQR, 12.1–29.3) in arm C (HR, 1.087; 95% CI, 0.986–1.198). The upper limits of CIs for HRs in both analyses were greater than the predefined noninferiority boundary. While intermittent chemotherapy was not deemed noninferior, there appeared to be clinically insignificant differences in patient outcomes.
5. The OPUS study sought to evaluate the effect of adding cetuximab to first-line treatment with a FOLFOX regimen in an open-labeled, randomized, multicenter, phase II study of patients with EGFR-expressing metastatic colorectal cancer.[69]
  • In the trial, 344 patients were randomly assigned to receive FOLFOX-4 alone or FOLFOX-4 plus cetuximab. There was no statistically significant difference in response rate or PFS.
  • On subset analysis, patients with KRAS wild-type tumors were analyzed separately. In the KRAS wild-type tumor population, there was a statistically significant improvement in response rate (61% vs. 37%, P = .011) and PFS (7.7 months vs. 7.2 months, P = .0163).
  • On subset analysis, patients with KRAS mutant tumors receiving FOLFOX4-cetuximab had a statistically significant worse PFS than patients with KRAS mutant tumors receiving FOLFOX4 (5.5 months vs. 8.6 months, P = .0192).[69][Level of evidence: 1iiD]

Panitumumab

Panitumumab is a fully humanized antibody against the EGFR. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved panitumumab for use in patients with metastatic colorectal cancer refractory to chemotherapy.[70] In clinical trials, panitumumab demonstrated efficacy as a single agent or in combination therapy, which was consistent with the effects on PFS and OS with cetuximab. There appears to be a consistent class effect.

Evidence (panitumumab):

1. In a phase III trial, patients with chemotherapy-refractory colorectal cancer were randomly assigned to panitumumab or best supportive care.
  • Patients receiving panitumumab experienced an improved PFS (8 weeks vs. 7.3 weeks, HR, 0.54; 95% CI, 0.44–0.66; P < .0001).[70][Level of evidence: 1iiDiii]
  • There was no difference in OS, which was thought to be the result of 76% of patients on best supportive care crossing over to panitumumab.
2. In the PRIME (NCT00364013) study, 1,183 patients were randomly assigned to FOLFOX4 with or without panitumumab as first-line therapy for metastatic colorectal cancer.[71] The study was amended to enlarge the sample size to address patients with the KRAS wild-type tumors and patients with mutant KRAS tumors separately.
  • For patients with KRAS wild-type tumors, a statistically significant improvement in PFS was observed in those who received panitumumab/FOLFOX4 compared with those who received only FOLFOX4 (HR, 0.80; 95% CI, 0.66–0.97; P = .02, stratified log-rank test).[71][Level of evidence: 1iiDiii]
  • Median PFS was 9.6 months (95% CI, 9.2 months–11.1 months) for patients who received panitumumab/FOLFOX4 and 8.0 months (95% CI, 7.5 months–9.3 months) for patients who received FOLFOX4. OS was not significantly different between the groups (HR, 0.83; 95% CI, 0.67–1.02; P = .072).
  • For patients with mutant KRAS tumors, there was worse PFS with the addition of panitumumab (HR, 1.29; 95% CI, 1.04–1.62; P = .02, stratified log-rank test).
    • Median PFS was 7.3 months (95% CI, 6.3 months–8.0 months) for panitumumab/FOLFOX4 and 8.8 months (95% CI, 7.7 months–9.4 months) for FOLFOX4 alone.
3. Similarly, the addition of panitumumab to a regimen of FOLFOX/bevacizumab resulted in a worse PFS and worse toxicity compared to a regimen of FOLFOX/bevacizumab alone in patients not selected for KRAS mutation in metastatic colon cancer (11.4 months vs. 10.0 months, HR, 1.27; 95% CI, 1.06–1.52).[72][Level of evidence: 1iiDiii]
4. In another study (NCT00339183), patients with metastatic colorectal cancer who had already received a fluoropyrimidine regimen were randomly assigned to either FOLFIRI or FOLFIRI plus panitumumab.[73]
  • In a post hoc analysis, patients with KRAS wild-type tumors experienced a statistically significant PFS advantage (HR, 0.73; 95% CI, 0.59–0.90; P = .004, stratified log-rank).[73][Level of evidence: 1iiDiii]
    • Median PFS was 5.9 months (95% CI, 5.5 months–6.7 months) for panitumumab/FOLFIRI and 3.9 months (95% CI, 3.7 months–5.3 months) for FOLFIRI alone.
  • OS was not significantly different. Patients with mutant KRAS tumors experienced no benefit from the addition of panitumumab.

Second-line chemotherapy

Second-line chemotherapy with irinotecan in patients treated with 5-FU-leucovorin as first-line therapy demonstrated improved OS when compared with either infusional 5-FU or supportive care.[74,75,76,77]

Similarly, a phase III trial randomly assigned patients who progressed on irinotecan and 5-FU-leucovorin to bolus and infusional 5-FU-leucovorin (LV5FU2), single-agent oxaliplatin, or FOLFOX4. The median TTP for FOLFOX4 versus LV5FU2 was 4.6 months versus 2.7 months (stratified log-rank test, 2-sided P < .001).[78][Level of evidence: 1iiDiii]

Third-line chemotherapy

Regorafenib is an inhibitor of multiple tyroisine kinase pathways including vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). In September 2012, the FDA granted approval for the use of regorafenib in patients who had progressed on prior therapy. The safety and effectiveness of regorafenib were evaluated in a single, clinical study of 760 patients with previously treated metastatic colorectal cancer.[79] Patients were randomly assigned to receive regorafenib or placebo in addition to best supportive care. Patients treated with regorafenib had a statistically significant improvement in OS (6.4 months vs. 5 months, HR, 0.493; 95% CI, 0.418–0.581; 1-sided P < .000001).[79]

Treatment Options Under Clinical Evaluation

Treatment options under clinical evaluation for stage IV and recurrent colon cancer include the following:

1. Clinical trials evaluating new drugs and biological therapy.
2. Clinical trials comparing various chemotherapy regimens or biological therapy, alone or in combination.

Current Clinical Trials

Check for U.S. clinical trials from NCI's list of cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with stage IV colon cancer and recurrent colon cancer. The list of clinical trials can be further narrowed by location, drug, intervention, and other criteria.

General information about clinical trials is also available from the NCI Web site.

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38. Kemeny N, Cohen A, Seiter K, et al.: Randomized trial of hepatic arterial floxuridine, mitomycin, and carmustine versus floxuridine alone in previously treated patients with liver metastases from colorectal cancer. J Clin Oncol 11 (2): 330-5, 1993.
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41. Petrelli N, Herrera L, Rustum Y, et al.: A prospective randomized trial of 5-fluorouracil versus 5-fluorouracil and high-dose leucovorin versus 5-fluorouracil and methotrexate in previously untreated patients with advanced colorectal carcinoma. J Clin Oncol 5 (10): 1559-65, 1987.
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43. Scheithauer W, Rosen H, Kornek GV, et al.: Randomised comparison of combination chemotherapy plus supportive care with supportive care alone in patients with metastatic colorectal cancer. BMJ 306 (6880): 752-5, 1993.
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45. Buyse M, Thirion P, Carlson RW, et al.: Relation between tumour response to first-line chemotherapy and survival in advanced colorectal cancer: a meta-analysis. Meta-Analysis Group in Cancer. Lancet 356 (9227): 373-8, 2000.
46. Leichman CG, Fleming TR, Muggia FM, et al.: Phase II study of fluorouracil and its modulation in advanced colorectal cancer: a Southwest Oncology Group study. J Clin Oncol 13 (6): 1303-11, 1995.
47. Van Cutsem E, Twelves C, Cassidy J, et al.: Oral capecitabine compared with intravenous fluorouracil plus leucovorin in patients with metastatic colorectal cancer: results of a large phase III study. J Clin Oncol 19 (21): 4097-106, 2001.
48. Hoff PM, Ansari R, Batist G, et al.: Comparison of oral capecitabine versus intravenous fluorouracil plus leucovorin as first-line treatment in 605 patients with metastatic colorectal cancer: results of a randomized phase III study. J Clin Oncol 19 (8): 2282-92, 2001.
49. Saltz LB, Cox JV, Blanke C, et al.: Irinotecan plus fluorouracil and leucovorin for metastatic colorectal cancer. Irinotecan Study Group. N Engl J Med 343 (13): 905-14, 2000.
50. de Gramont A, Figer A, Seymour M, et al.: Leucovorin and fluorouracil with or without oxaliplatin as first-line treatment in advanced colorectal cancer. J Clin Oncol 18 (16): 2938-47, 2000.
51. Douillard JY, Cunningham D, Roth AD, et al.: Irinotecan combined with fluorouracil compared with fluorouracil alone as first-line treatment for metastatic colorectal cancer: a multicentre randomised trial. Lancet 355 (9209): 1041-7, 2000.
52. Tournigand C, André T, Achille E, et al.: FOLFIRI followed by FOLFOX6 or the reverse sequence in advanced colorectal cancer: a randomized GERCOR study. J Clin Oncol 22 (2): 229-37, 2004.
53. Colucci G, Gebbia V, Paoletti G, et al.: Phase III randomized trial of FOLFIRI versus FOLFOX4 in the treatment of advanced colorectal cancer: a multicenter study of the Gruppo Oncologico Dell'Italia Meridionale. J Clin Oncol 23 (22): 4866-75, 2005.
54. Fuchs CS, Marshall J, Mitchell E, et al.: Randomized, controlled trial of irinotecan plus infusional, bolus, or oral fluoropyrimidines in first-line treatment of metastatic colorectal cancer: results from the BICC-C Study. J Clin Oncol 25 (30): 4779-86, 2007.
55. Díaz-Rubio E, Tabernero J, Gómez-España A, et al.: Phase III study of capecitabine plus oxaliplatin compared with continuous-infusion fluorouracil plus oxaliplatin as first-line therapy in metastatic colorectal cancer: final report of the Spanish Cooperative Group for the Treatment of Digestive Tumors Trial. J Clin Oncol 25 (27): 4224-30, 2007.
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57. Hurwitz H, Fehrenbacher L, Novotny W, et al.: Bevacizumab plus irinotecan, fluorouracil, and leucovorin for metastatic colorectal cancer. N Engl J Med 350 (23): 2335-42, 2004.
58. Sanoff HK, Sargent DJ, Campbell ME, et al.: Five-year data and prognostic factor analysis of oxaliplatin and irinotecan combinations for advanced colorectal cancer: N9741. J Clin Oncol 26 (35): 5721-7, 2008.
59. Saltz LB, Clarke S, Díaz-Rubio E, et al.: Bevacizumab in combination with oxaliplatin-based chemotherapy as first-line therapy in metastatic colorectal cancer: a randomized phase III study. J Clin Oncol 26 (12): 2013-9, 2008.
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Changes to This Summary (01 / 31 / 2013) Back to top

The PDQ cancer information summaries are reviewed regularly and updated as new information becomes available. This section describes the latest changes made to this summary as of the date above.

This summary has been reformatted.

Stage III Colon Cancer Treatment

Added text to state that for patients with stage III colon cancer, capecitabine provides equivalent outcome to intravenous 5-FU and leucovorin.

Stage IV and Recurrent Colon Cancer Treatment

Revised text to state that a meta-analysis of the randomized studies, which were all done in the era when only fluoropyrimidines were available for systemic therapy, did not demonstrate a survival advantage (cited Mocellin et al. as reference 40).

Added text to include aflibercept as one of the eight active and approved drugs for patients with metastatic colorectal cancer.

Added text to state that a major question was whether the use of bevacizumab after first-line therapy was warranted when bevacizumab was used as a component of first-line therapy; added that at the 2012 American Society of Clinical Oncology Annual Meeting data was presented from a randomized, controlled trial of patients with metastatic colorectal cancer who were randomly assigned to chemotherapy without bevacizumab or chemotherapy with bevacizumab (cited Arnold et al. as reference 62 and level of evidence 1iiA).

Added Aflibercept as a new subsection.

Added text to state that because cetuximab affects tyrosine kinase signaling at the surface of the cell membrane, tumors with mutations causing activation of the pathway downstream of the EGFR are not sensitive to its effects; the addition of cetuximab to multiagent chemotherapy improves survival in patients with colon cancers that lack a KRAS mutation.

Added text to state that the OPUS study sought to evaluate the effect of adding cetuximab to first-line treatment with a FOLFOX regimen in an open-labeled, randomized, multicenter, phase II study of patients with EGFR-expressing metastatic colorectal cancer (cited Bokemeyer et al. as reference 69 and level of evidence 1iiD).

Added text to state that in clinical trials, panitumumab demonstrated efficacy as a single agent or in combination therapy, which was consistent with the effects on PFS and overall survival with cetuximab; there appears to be a consistent class effect.

Added Third-line chemotherapy as a new subsection.

This summary is written and maintained by the PDQ Adult Treatment Editorial Board, which is editorially independent of NCI. The summary reflects an independent review of the literature and does not represent a policy statement of NCI or NIH. More information about summary policies and the role of the PDQ Editorial Boards in maintaining the PDQ summaries can be found on the About This PDQ Summary and PDQ NCI's Comprehensive Cancer Database pages.

About This PDQ Summary Back to top

Purpose of This Summary

This PDQ cancer information summary for health professionals provides comprehensive, peer-reviewed, evidence-based information about the treatment of colon cancer. It is intended as a resource to inform and assist clinicians who care for cancer patients. It does not provide formal guidelines or recommendations for making health care decisions.

Reviewers and Updates

This summary is reviewed regularly and updated as necessary by the PDQ Adult Treatment Editorial Board, which is editorially independent of the National Cancer Institute (NCI). The summary reflects an independent review of the literature and does not represent a policy statement of NCI or the National Institutes of Health (NIH).

Board members review recently published articles each month to determine whether an article should:

  • be discussed at a meeting,
  • be cited with text, or
  • replace or update an existing article that is already cited.

Changes to the summaries are made through a consensus process in which Board members evaluate the strength of the evidence in the published articles and determine how the article should be included in the summary.

The lead reviewers for Colon Cancer Treatment are:

  • Russell S. Berman, MD (New York University School of Medicine)
  • David P. Ryan, MD (Massachusetts General Hospital)
  • Jennifer Wo, MD (Massachusetts General Hospital)

Any comments or questions about the summary content should be submitted to Cancer.gov through the Web site's Contact Form. Do not contact the individual Board Members with questions or comments about the summaries. Board members will not respond to individual inquiries.

Levels of Evidence

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The preferred citation for this PDQ summary is:

National Cancer Institute: PDQ® Colon Cancer Treatment. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. Date last modified <MM/DD/YYYY>. Available at: http://cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/colon/HealthProfessional. Accessed <MM/DD/YYYY>.

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Last Revised: 2013-01-31

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